Category: Medical science

A fibroblast is a type of biological cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, produces the structural framework (stroma) for animal tissues and plays a fundamental role in the healing of wounds. Fibroblast function is the most common connective tissue cells in animals.

fibroblast function

Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers, glycosaminoglycans, reticulate and elastic fibers, and fibroblasts of individual individuals divide and synthesize the ground substance. Tissue damage stimulates fibrocytes and induces fibroblast production.

Inflammation

In addition to the well-known role of structural components, fibroblasts play a key role in the immune response to tissue damage. They are early players in initiating inflammation in the presence of attacking microorganisms. They induce chemokine synthesis by displaying receptors on their surface. The immune cells then react and initiate a cascade of events to remove invasive microorganisms. Receptors on the surface of fibroblasts also allow the regulation of hematopoietic cells and provide pathways for immune cells that regulate fibroblast function.

Tumor meditation

fibroblast function, like tumor-associated host fibroblasts (TAFs), plays a key role in the regulation of immunity through extracellular matrix extracellular matrix (ECM) components and modulators. TAF is known to be significant in the inflammatory response as well as in immunological suppression in tumors. The ECM components originating from TAF cause changes in the ECM composition and start the ECM rebuild. ECM reconstruction describes as changes in ECM due to enzymatic activity that can lead to ECM degradation.

Immunological regulation of tumors is largely determined by ECM remodeling, because ECM is responsible for the regulation of many functions, such as proliferation, differentiation, and morphogenesis of vital organs. In many types of cancer, especially those associated with epithelial cells, ECM remodeling is common. Examples of TAF-based ECM derivatives include Tenascin and Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), which can be found in chronic inflammation and cancers, respectively.

The immune regulation of tumors can also be affected by TAF derived modulators. Although these modulators may sound similar to the ECM components of TAF derivatives, they differ in that they are responsible for the variability and rotation of the ECM. Split ECM molecules can play a key role in immune regulation. Proteases such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the uPA system is cleav the ECM. These proteases derive with fibroblasts.

Secondary Actions

Murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) use as “nutrient cells” in research on human embryonic stem cells. However, many researchers are gradually eliminating MEF factors in favor of breeding media with strictly defined components exclusively derived from humans. The source needed] In addition, the difficulty of using only human acquisition for dietary supplements is most often solved by means of “defined media”. where the supplements are synthetic and achieve the main goal, which is to eliminate the risk of contamination from derivative sources.

fibroblast function has a branched cytoplasm surrounding an elliptical, speckled nucleus with two or more nuclei. Active fibroblasts recognize after a thick rough endoplasmic reticulum. Inactive fibroblasts (called fibrocytes) are smaller in spindle shape and have a reduced amount of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Although they disjoint and disperse, when they need to cover a large space, fibroblasts, when crowded, often locally equalize in parallel clusters.

structures

Unlike epithelial cells lining the body structures, fibroblasts do not form flat single layers and are not limited by a polarizing connection to the basal lamina on the one hand, although in some situations they may contribute to the basic components of the leaf blade (eg, Sub-gut myofibroblasts can secrete the α-2 chain carrier component of laminin, which is not only present in the epithelial regions associated with the vesicle, which lacks the muscle lining). Fibroblasts can also migrate slowly over the substrate as single cells, again unlike epithelial cells. While epithelial cells from the lining of body structures, fibroblasts, and related connective tissues sculpt the “mass” of the body.

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The intervertebral disc function acts as a shock absorber between each vertebra of the spine, keeping the circles separated when there is an effect of activity. They also serve to protect the nerves that run in the middle of the spine and intervertebral discs.

intervertebral disc function

Between the various vertebrae in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae (not in the sacrum and caudal bone) there are oval pads made of fibrous insert called the intervertebral discs.

The discs have a hard outer shell of the cartilage that provides support (fibrous rings) and a soft, jelly-like center that provides cushioning (nucleus pulposus).

Intervertebral disc function have the following roles:

They provide cushioning of the vertebrae and reduce the stress caused by the impact. Keeping the vertebrae separated from each other, they act as a kind of shock absorber for the spine.
They help to protect the nerves that run along the spine and between the vertebrae.
They increase the flexibility of the spine and allow us to bend at the waist without pushing the vertebrae towards each other.

injures

Intervertebral discs are susceptible to many injuries. Most often it is called <b> disk hernia </ b> (a.k.a., bulging disc or slipped disk). Convex discs usually appear later in life. When discs age, they begin to break down, and when someone exerts excessive pressure on them, eg. Lifting something heavy around the waist instead of on the legs, they can break, break, and the gelatinous medium leaks. The jelly can irritate the surrounding nerves and cause their inflammation. This inflammation can put pressure on the nerves, causing back pain. The disc herniation diagnoses in several ways, including palpitations (spinal sensation) or X-rays and MRI imaging. Treatment of disc herniation as simple as resting and allowing healing, taking anti-inflammatory medications to reduce swelling, and in some extreme cases, surgery performed to repair the damage.

structure

Intervertebral disks consist of an outer fibrous ring, an intervertebral fibrous ring that surrounds the inner, gel-like center, the nucleus pulposus. The fibrous core consists of several layers (plaques) of fibrous-cartilage composed of both collagen type I and types II. Type I concentrates towards the edge of the ring, where it provides more strength. Stiff lamina can withstand compressive forces. Fibrous intervertebral discs contain the crush nucleus, which helps to evenly distribute the pressure on the disc. This prevents the formation of stress concentrations that could damage the underlying vertebrae or their end plates. The nucleus pulp contains loose fibers suspended in a mucoprotein gel. The disk kernel acts as a shock absorber, absorbing the effects of body activity and separating two vertebrae. It is a remnant of a notochord.

There is one plate between each pair of vertebrae, with the exception of the first cervical segment, the atlas. Atlas is a ring around a roughly conical axis extension (second cervical segment). The axis acts as a pole around which the atlas can rotate, allowing the neck to rotate. There are 23 discs in the human spine: 6 in the neck (cervical region), 12 in the middle ridge (thoracic region) and 5 in the lower back (lumbar region). For example, the circle between the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae is referred to as “C5-6

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Lymph nodes (mediastinum) are small round organs of the lymphatic system that support the proper functioning of the immune system. They help the body fight infection by filtering foreign lymphatic particles, a transparent or whitish fluid that consists of white blood cells. Lymphrate also contains a type of white blood cells called lymphocytes that help attack bacteria in the blood. Intra-articular lymph nodes are glands that are located in the part of the chest that lies between the breastbone and the spine. Read below mediastinum function.

mediastinum function

This region is called mediastinum and contains the heart, thymus, trachea and large blood vessels. Mediastinal lymph nodes are responsible for bone marrow support and the thymus for the production of mature lymphocytes. Lymph nodes differ in size from the size of the head to the size of lima beans. They enclose in a fibrous capsule. The lymph nodes are connected with each other by various lymph vessels and are drainage vessels (ie away from the center or away from the central nervous system).

The mediastinum locates in the chest and is close on the right and left through the pleura. It surrounds with the chest at the front, the lungs at the sides and the spine at the back and stretches from the sternum to the front of the spine at the back and contains all the organs of the chest except the lungs. It is continuous with a loose connective tissue of the neck.

mediastinum structure

Mediastinum can be divided into upper (or upper) and lower (or worse) parts:

The mediastinal mediastinum begins at the top of the chest and ends in the plane of the chest.
The chest surface separates the upper and lower mediastinum. This is the plane at the angle of the sternum and the intervertebral disc T4-T5. 



Inferior mediastinum from this level to the diaphragm. This lower part divides into three areas, all referring to the pericardium – the front part of the mediastinum located in front of the pericardium, the middle mediastinum contains the pericardium and its contents, and the posterior mediastinum is located behind the pericardium.

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The somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, which is the entire nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord. In particular, the somatic nervous system is responsible for the movements of voluntary muscles and a process name is a reflex arc. This system transfers nerve impulses back and forth between the central nervous system, which is the brain and spinal cord as well as skeletal muscles, skin and sensory organs. One of the most composite systems in the body is the nervous system. In this lesson you will learn about the somatic nervous system and how important the body’s functions are. Examples and illustrations will provide to facilitate the understanding Somatic Nervous System function. The somatic nervous system plays a very important role in bringing the ball to the alley – especially if you want to strike.

Somatic Nervous System function

The basic role of the somatic nervous system is to connect the central nervous system with organs, muscles and the skin. This enables you to perform compound movements and behaviors. Somatic neurons carry messages from external areas of the body that are related to the senses. It’s like moving from the environment to the central nervous system. Sensory/afferent neurons carry impulses to the central nervous system and the brain. After processing by the central nervous system, the somatic motor or efferent neurons receive a signal to the muscles and organs of the senses.

Remember the pairs of nerves described above under the parts of the somatic nervous system. Some of the nerve pairs only have sensory neurons, such as those that involve in sense of smell and vision. Others have only motor neurons, such as those involved in the movement of the eyeball (not seeing) and hearing. In somatic nervous system function, some pairs of nerves have both sensory and motor neurons, such as those associated with taste and some aspects of swallowing.

Parts of the somatic nervous system

The somatic system consists of two different types of neurons, which are also called nerve cells. Two types of neurons are sensory neurons or afferent neurons that transmit messages to the central nervous system and motor neurons, also called outgoing neurons that transmit information from the central nervous system to additional zone of the body. The neuron has a body and axon; The body of the neuron is located in the central nervous system. The axon is embedded in the skeletal muscles, sensory organs or skin.

Now we will talk about how the somatic nervous system fits the peripheral nervous system. In the peripheral nervous system there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves, which are composed of sensory neurons and motor neurons. Some pairs of nerves have only sensory cells, some have only motor cells, and still, others have both sensory and motor cells. Cellular nerve cells are somatic or autonomous. Because this lesson is about the somatic nervous system, we will not discuss autonomic nerve cells in detail.

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The parasympathetic nervous system function (PSNS) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (the division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the other is the sympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the unconscious actions of the body. The parasympathetic nervous system function is responsible for stimulating “rest and digestion. The feeding and reproduction” activities that occur when the body is resting, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, drooling, tearing (tears), urination, digestion, and defecation. 

The nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the central nervous system. Specific nerves include several cranial nerves, in particular, the oculomotor nerve, the facial nerve, the laryngopharyngeal nerve, and the vagus nerve. Three spinal nerves in the sacrum (S2-4), commonly referred to as pelvic span nerves, also act as parasympathetic nerves.

The parasympathetic nervous system function

Feeling

Intravital nerve supply fibers that transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as drainage fibers: 34-35 Instead, autonomic sensory information is carried out by visceral afferents generally.

General visceral sensations are mostly unconscious visceral motor reflexes from the hollow organs and glands that are transmitted to the CNS. While unconscious reflex arcs are usually undetectable, in some cases they can send pain sensations to the CNS masked, like the mentioned pain. If the peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the gut suddenly expands, the body will interpret the effective stimulus of pain as being somatic at first. This pain is usually not located. 

Vascular effects

Heart rate is largely controlled by the action of an internal pacemaker. Cardiac cells exhibit automatism, which is the ability to generate electrical activity independent of external stimulation. 

In parasympathetic nervous system function, the absence of any external stimuli, peripheral stimulation contributes to maintaining heart rate in the range of 60-100 beats per minute (bpm). At the same time, the two branches of the autonomic nervous system activity in a complementary way. It increases or slowing down the heart rate. In this context, the vagus nerve acts on the sinoatrial node, slowing its conduction, actively modulating the vagus nerve tension, respectively. 

The vagus nerve plays a key role in regulating the heart rate by modulating the sinus node response, the vagus nerve tone can be quantified by examining the modulation of the heart rate caused by changes in the vagus tone.  The main mechanism of the parasympathetic nervous system for vascular and cardiac control is the so-called nasal sinus arrhythmia (RSA). 

Sexual activity

Another role played by the parasympathetic nervous system is sexual activity. In males, cavernous nerves from the prostate plexus stimulate smooth muscles in fibrous tufts of rolled penile arteries to loosen. It allows the blood to fill the two corpus cavernosum and the penile spongy body. It made them stiff to prepare for sex. action. After separating the ejaculate, sympathetic people interact with each other and cause peristalsis of the auditory canal and closure of the internal urethral sphincter to prevent sperm from entering the bladder. At the same time, Paralympics cause peristalsis of the urethral muscle.

In parasympathetic nervous system function, the pudendal nerves cause a contraction of the tuberculous to secrete the strength of the semen. During remission, the penis becomes flabby again. In females, there is erection tissue analogous to male, but less important, which plays a large role in sexual stimulation. PN causes secretion in the female, which reduces friction. Also in women, the parasympathetic innervate the fallopian tubes, which helps peristaltic cramps and the movement of the oocyte to the uterus for implantation. Secrets from the female genital system help in the migration of sperm. PN (and SN to a lesser extent) play an important role in reproduction.

Other parasympathetic nervous system function (receptors)

The parasympathetic nervous system mainly uses acetylcholine (ACh) as a neurotransmitter, although peptides (such as cholecystokinin) may be used. ACh acts on two types of receptors, muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Most of the transmission proceeds in two stages: after stimulation. The neurotransmitter releases ACh in a ganglion that acts on the nicotinic receptors of postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic neuron then releases ACh to stimulate muscarinic receptors on the target organ.

structure

The parasympathetic nerves are autonomic or sensory branches of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Restoration of the parasympathetic nerve arises in three main areas:

Certain cranial nerves in the skull, namely the parasympathetic nerves usually arise from specific nuclei in the central nervous system. (CNS) and synapse in one of the four parasympathetic ganglia: cilia, pterygopalatine, or submandibular. Of these four ganglia, the parasympathetic nerves end their journey to target tissues through the trigeminal branches (optic nerve, maxillary nerve, mandibular nerve).

The vagus nerve does not participate in these cranial ganglia, because most parasympathetic fibers are intended for a wide range of ganglia on or near the torso (esophagus, trachea, heart, lungs) and abdominal viscera (stomach, pancreas, liver, kidney, small intestine, and about half large intestine). The vicious labyrinth ends at the intersection between the medial and posterior mediastinum. It just before the bending of the lateral spleen of the colon.

Cerebral nerve

Cerebral nerve cells from the pelvic area are found in the side-gray corner of the spinal cord at the level of T12-L1 vertebrae (spinal cord ends on L1-L2 vertebrae with a spinal cone) and their axons emerge from the spine as S2-S4 spinal nerves by the pouch. Their axons continue from the CNS to the synapse on the autonomous coil. 

This differs from the sympathetic nervous system, where synapse of the nerve nerves before and after the ganglia is present in the ganglia located further away from the target organ.



Like in the sympathetic nervous system, signals of the parasympathetic nerve are transferred from the central nervous system to their targets by means of a system of two neurons. Its cellular body is located in the central nervous system. Its axon usually extends to the synapse with postganglionic dendrite elsewhere in the body.  As a result, post-synaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short.

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The sinus node (SA node), also known as the sinus node, is a group of cells located in the wall of the right atrium of the heart. These cells have the ability to spontaneously produce an electrical impulse (action potential, see below for more details) that travels through the heart via the electrical conduction system, causing it to contract. Read below SA node function.

SA node function

The main role of sinus node cells is to initiate functional potentials so that they can pass through the heart and cause spasms. The functional potential is the change in the voltage (membrane potential) across the cell membrane, produced by the movement of charged atoms (ions). Cells without a pacemaker (including ventricular and atrial cells) have a period immediately following the action potential where the potential of the membrane remains relatively constant; this is so-called the potential of resting membrane. This resting phase (see cardiac action potential, phase 4) ends when another action potential reaches the cell.

In sa node function, this gives a positive change in membrane potential (known as depolarization), which initiates the beginning of the next action potential. However, cancer cells do not have this resting phase. Instead, immediately after one potential action, the membrane potential of these cells automatically begins to depolarize again, this is known as the potential of the stimulator. When the pacemaker potential reaches a predetermined value, known as a threshold value, then it produces a functional potential. Other cells within the heart (including Purkinje fibers and atrioventricular node, AVN) can also initiate functional potentials; however, they do so slowly, and therefore, if the SA node is working, it is usually pierced by AVN.

phase 4

This phase is also known as the stimulator potential. Immediately after the action of potential, when the membrane potential is very negative (hyperpolarized), the voltage slowly begins to increase. This is initially caused by the closure of potassium channels, which reduces the flow of potassium ions.

Phase 0

This is the depolarization phase. When the membrane potential reaches the threshold (about -20 to -50 mV), it begins to depolarise rapidly (it becomes more positive). This is mainly due to the Ca2 + flow through the L-type calcium channels, which are now completely open. During this stage, T-type calcium channels and HCN channels are deactivated.

Phase 3

This phase is the phase of repolarization. This is due to the inactivation of L-type calcium channels (preventing Ca2 + from moving to the cell) and activation of potassium channels, which allows K + outflow from the cell, making the membrane potential more negative.

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The coronary sinus is a collection of veins connected together to form a large vessel that collects blood from the myocardium (myocardium). It provides less oxygenated blood to the right atrium, as well as better and weaker veins. It occurs in all mammals, including humans.

The name comes from the Latin crown, which means the crown because this vessel forms a partial circle around the heart. The coronary sinus drains into the right atrium. The mouth of the coronary sinus, the opening between the inferior vena cava and the right atrio-ventricular or tricuspid valve. It draws blood from the heart muscle and is protected by a semicircular fold of the lining of the ear mucus, the coronary sinus valve (or Thebesius valve). The bay, before entering the vestibule, is significantly widened – almost to the size of the end of the little finger. Its wall is partly muscled, and at the interface with the large cardiac vein is slightly tapered and equipped with a valve, known as the Vieussens valve, consisting of two uneven segments. 

coronary sinus function

The coronary sinus receives blood mainly from small, medium, large and oblique cardiac veins. He also receives blood from the left marginal vein and left vena cava of the ventricle. He drains into the right atrium.

In the coronary sinus function, the front veins of the heart do not flow down to the coronary sinus but flow directly into the right atrium. Some small veins, known as the smallest cardiac veins, flow directly to each of the four chambers of the heart.

The coronary sinus begins with the intersection of the great cardiac vein and oblique vein of the left atrium. The end of the great cardiac vein and coronary sinus is marked with a Vieussens valve. 

The coronary sinus function runs transversely in the left atrio-ventricular groove on the back of the heart. It is the distal part of the great cardiac vein supplying the right atrium.

The valve of the coronary sinus is located on the posterior. The inferior surface of the heart, medially to the lower opening of the vena cava. It slightly higher than the partition of the tricuspid valve. The coronary sinus valve is also known as Thebes’ valve.

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The aortic arch is part of the main artery that bends between the ascending and descending aorta. He leaves the heart and rises, then goes down to create a bow. The aorta distributes the blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body. Certain aortic complications may ultimately lead to blockage of blood vessels. These blockages restrict the flow of blood to the rest of the body, which can eventually lead to edema and even an aneurysm. Conditions associated with the aortic arch are:

Aorta function & Aortic arch

Atherosclerosis or hardening of the heart
The Aortic arch syndrome, a group of symptoms associated with structural problems with arteries separated from the aorta
Aortic congenital malformations
Aortic coarctation (aortic arch stenosis)
Takayasu arthritis that can cause stroke, heart attack or other damage

It is difficult for physicians to diagnose complications with the aortic arch before limiting blood vessels. Magnetic resonance imaging is one of the types of tests used by doctors to determine the occurrence of aortic complications. This requires the use of magnetic fields for the production of heart images. Echocardiography involves using sound waves to obtain images of the heart. Treatment of aortic arch complications include beta-blockers, quenching, ACE inhibitors, diet changes, and Dacron transplantation.

Aorta function & descending

The aorta comes from the left ventricle. It ends in the abdominal cavity, where it branches into two common iliac arteries. The aorta consists of five separate segments. The descending aorta begins with the aortic arch (where the loop passes through the heart to begin its descent). It is divided into two segments: chest and abdomen. The descending aorta (thoracic aorta) is located between the aortic arch and the diaphragm muscles below the ribs.

The starting point is on the left side of the circles. As he descends, he writhes around the vertebrae and ends up at the front. The diameter of the artery is 2.32 centimeters. It has six paired branches: bronchial arteries, mediastinal arteries, esophageal arteries, pericardial arteries, the artery of the upper arteries and intercostal arteries. There are nine pairs of intercostal arteries. The right branches are longer than the left because the descending aorta (thoracic aorta) is on the left side of the circle. Through various branches, it delivers blood to the esophagus, lungs and chest area, including ribs and mammary glands.

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Bone cubes (also called ossicles) are three bones in the middle ear that belong to the smallest bones in the human body. They are used to transfer sounds from the air to a fluid-filled labyrinth (snail). Lack of hearing blocks would be moderate to severe hearing loss. The term “ossicle” literally means “tiny bone”. Although the term may refer to any small bone in the entire body. It usually refers to the hammer, anvil, and stapes (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) of the middle ear. Read below ossicles function.

ossicles function

When the sound waves vibrate the eardrum (the eardrum), it, in turn, shifts the closest ossicular, the hammer to which it is attached. Then malleus transmits vibrations, through the anvil, to the stapes, and thus eventually to the oval window membrane (fenestra ovalis), the opening to the inner ear vestibule. The sound moving in the air is usually reflected in contact with the liquid medium; only about 1/30 of the sound energy moving in the air will be transferred to the liquid. This is observed after sudden cessation of the sound that occurs when the head is submerged under water.

This is due to the fact that the relative incompressibility of a liquid is a resistance to the strength of sound waves traveling in the air. Bone cubes give a mechanical advantage to the barrel by lever action and reduction of the force distribution area; the resulting vibrations would be much weaker if the sound waves were transferred directly from the outer ear to the oval window. This reduction in the area of force application allows a sufficiently high-pressure increase to transfer most of the sound energy to the liquid. The increased pressure will compress the fluid in the cochlea and transmit the stimulus. Thus, the presence of ossicles to focus the vibration strength improves the sensitivity to sound and is a form of impedance matching.

ossicular movements

However, the range of ossicular movements is controlled (and narrowed) by two attached muscles (timpani tensor and stapedius). These muscles are thought to shrink to suppress auditory oscillations to protect the inner ear from excessively noisy noise and to give better frequency resolution at higher frequencies by reducing low-frequency transmission. These muscles are more developed in bats and serve to block outgoing bats screaming during echolocation.

structure

The bone cubes are in order from the eardrum to the inner ear (from superficial to deep): malleus, incus, and stapes, terms which in Latin are translated as “hammer, anvil, and stirrup”.

Malleus connects with the coil through the heel-dorsal joint and is attached to the eardrum (tympanic membrane) from which the vibratory movement of sound pressure passes.
Incus is connected with both other bones.
The staple is connected to the urethra by arthritic-joint joints and is attached to the fenestra window membrane, an oval or elliptic window or an opening between the middle ear and the inner ear vestibule. It is the tiny bone in the body. 

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The main function of the heart is to pump the blood into the lungs so that it is saturated with oxygen and then pump it into the body to supply the cells with oxygen. The heart, along with the blood vessels, forms the cardiovascular system.

take blood from vena-cava (both higher and worse)
pumping through the pulmonary artery into the lungs
after the lungs oxygenate the received blood, blood is directed to the heart through the pulmonary vein
the heart then pumps the oxygenated blood for the whole body through the aorta
Now, if you want to understand each point in detail, here’s:

Deoxygenated blood is received by the heart from the body through a better and inferior main vein. The highest vena-cava carries deoxygenated blood from the upper region and the inferior main vein (which is larger than the higher one) from the lower part of the body.

Blood from the main cava vein is picked up by the right atria. The right vestibule also receives blood from the coronary sinus (vessels of the heart itself). This blood (deoxygenated) flows into the right ventricle. The hole between right auric and ventilated is guarded by a double-sided gate valve called mitral valve. Now the blood from the right ventricle is pumped to the lungs (for oxygenation) through the pulmonary artery.

After oxygenation of the blood in the lungs, it is again taken up by the heart … in the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. Now the blood from the left atrium flows into the left ventricle. The opening of the left atrium and the ventricle is guarded by a tricuspid valve.
The left ventricle now contains oxygenated blood pumped through the aorta and reaches all organs through the arteries.

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